Week 1 – Industry and Institution: Political Economy

When exploring the concept of political economy, it is necessary to consider the production of media texts in the context of the “social conditions under which it takes place” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 172). Ultimately, it is a way of examining the power and control that various parties have in dictating the nature of media products.

The media commonly operates a free market, governed more so by supply and demand than regulations, and thus, the audience plays an important role in dictating the content that they want. As revenue is created either directly from audiences or from advertisers who focus on reaching as large an audience as possible, the financial success of a product and a company depends on whether or not the audience purchases or engages with the media text. However, this can cause products to become similar – film companies often use famous actors to entice an audience to control the uncertainty. This suggests that the power with the audience, as they can dictate the content that they would like to receive.

This is not necessarily the case. Natalie Fenton suggests that “political economy views the media as promoting the dominant ideology of the ruling classes” (Fenton, 2007, p. 8). This can be evident in the way that companies collaborate to increase profits, through synergy. An example of this is the release of a film. Songs from the film’s soundtrack are featured in music videos that also contain clips of the film. Through this, the film promotes that particular artist and the song promotes the film. In a similar way, magazine interviews that feature stars of the film increases the demand for the magazine but also the popularity of the film. Furthermore, films are invariably advertised on television – this generates interest in the film but also revenue for the television companies.

Cost of media production can be high if mass-market success is to be ensured. It is often the larger companies that profit from this – the rich simply get richer. Few companies are able to saturate the market and buy out the smaller companies through monopolies (where one controls entire market) or oligopolies (where a companies dominate the market). Social media is a prime example of this, as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram dominate the market and Facebook’s recent purchase of Instagram reinforces this even further. The way that photographs are taken and shared is seemingly user-centred, but is dictated by the big companies. Whilst the audience may feel like they are in control of what they consume “media production has been increasingly commandeered by large corporations and moulded to their interests and strategies” (Fenton, 2007, p. 11).

Further research could be conducted into the ways that photography has evolved through the emergence of new media, exploring the relationship between the increase of ‘smartphone photography’ and the ways that this market pull has influenced the success of companies such as Instagram.

Bibliography

Fenton, N. (2007) ‘Bridging the Mythical Divide: Political Economy and Cultural Studies Approaches to the Analysis of the Media’, in Devereux, E. Media Studies: Key Issues and Debates. United Kingdom: Sage Publications Ltd.

Long, P. and Wall, T. (2009) Media Studies: Texts, Production, and Context. United Kingdom: Pearson Longman.

Week 2 – Industry and Institution: Regulation

Regulation within the media can be considered as a limiting factor, as it can be interpreted that “when something is regulated it is controlled or restricted in some way” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 208). There are, however, arguments both for and against such regulation within the media.

Many critics will challenge whether the media should be regulated at all. Recent social issues such as the massacre at the Charlie Hebdo magazine have led to an uprising in people claiming their right to free speech, and it can be claimed that regulations can authorise or prohibit certain actions or ideas and promote or restrict expression (Long and Wall, 2009, pp. 208-209). There is also the ways in which regulation can be created, not solely for the benefit of the consumers, but those in power. It has been suggested that “regulation of the media reflects not merely broad acceptance of, but insistence on, political rather than market-determined outcomes” (Owen, 2008, p. 8), implying that regulation is controlled by the monopolies and the governments who are in power to further their own interests.

Counter-arguments in favour of regulation are often left unconsidered. Regulation of media content does ensure that children are protected from inappropriate images – regulatory bodies such as the British Board of Film Classification guarantee that content is marked as age-appropriate. There are also regulations that ensure that media must reflect society and its culture and thus enables a wider range of people to enjoy content. In this regard, media regulation attempts to control what is regarded as right and wrong.

There is a clear difference between policy and regulation and it is one that is often confused. “Policy is government objectives or plans of action which set rational goals to be achieved by directing or influencing decisions that are made by media companies or customers” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 208), whereas “regulation concerns legal or self-imposed controls or restrictions on media organisations, involving their ownership, production processes and output, as a means to achieve a policy goal” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 209). Policies are focused upon goals and objectives, whilst regulations are focussed on laws and rulings.

One factor that does appear to unify policies and regulations, however, is that they are all created with the ruling classes in mind, whether it be the regulations set by governing bodies for their own interests, or the policies set by the organisations to further their own successes. Bruce Owen suggests that “rational regulatory policy often seems an impossible goal” (Owen, 2008, p. 8) as the logic and reason behind decisions is often blurred by greed and self-indulgence.

It may be interesting to explore the ways in which regulations within photography have changed over time as it has progressed into the digital age. Debates such as ‘who or what can be photographed?’ are particularly prevalent in the high-security, privacy protective society in which we live. By comparing previous regulations to modern day regulations, differences may be identified and correlations drawn with the way that the industry has advanced, such as whether or not regulation is dictated by the modern commercialisation of photography and the mass production of cameras that makes it accessible to all.

Bibliography

Long, P. and Wall, T. (2009) Media Studies: Texts, Production, and Context. United Kingdom: Pearson Longman.

Owen, B. (2008) ‘The Temptation of Media Regulation’, Regulation, 31.

Week 3 – Globalisation

When considering the ever-changing industry, it is vital to acknowledge the significance and impact of media globalisation – “the worldwide distribution of identical programme content or globally interchangeable programme formats” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 198). For example, television programme formats such as ‘Got Talent’, ‘I’m A Celebrity Get Me Out Of Here!’ and ‘Big Brother’ proving successful across countries and cultures.

The globalisation does not conclude with television. The way in which the media has proved a catalyst for homogenisation (local cultures being changed by a dominant external culture) demonstrates how penetrative and powerful the media can be. The Americanisation of global society is led by brands such as McDonalds, Coca Cola, Nike and Apple. Through globalisation, the brands have grown in stature, but through glocalisation they have asserted themselves as controlling powers. By adapting products to suit the cultures – McDonalds produce beef-free burgers in India due to religious reasons – they are able to continue to expand.

There are a number of debates surrounding the globalisation of media, particularly focussing on social networks. There are criticisms of the impact that online social networks has with regards to the homogenisation of cultures, as they enable individuals to connect with anyone from anywhere and thus, as there is more information to consume, they are given more choice. Nicholas Stevenson suggests that “media forms both compress the world while rapidly expanding the amount of information regularly made available” (Stevenson, 1999, p. 11). This ability to exchange cultures, however, should be a seen as positive contributor to a modern and diverse society. Considering the world as a global village, social networks such as Facebook and Twitter allow cultures to instantly connect with each other and develop a sense of community.

Some may claim that “there is little sense in protesting against the overwhelmingly biased nature of much media production” (Stevenson, 1999, p. 10), as it is significantly driven by the larger companies through their own monopolistic interests. Whilst social media, for example, does allow for the development of relationships across cultures, it remains an industry driven by profit.

Nevertheless, as media becomes more accessible worldwide and the digital divide continues to be bridged, there are two potential outcomes for the mass media. The production of media could become more diverse and equally distributed, with a wider range of views and perspectives portrayed from a variety of sources or simply, corporations could continue to expand and establish a greater supremacy within the industry.

Research in this area could be conducted to consider the impact that globalisation has had on social media such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, particularly focussing on the debate surrounding homogenisation. By gathering a range of views from across the globe, it may be possible to determine whether the concept of sharing and unifying cultures through online mediums is one that is considered welcome or unwelcome.

Bibliography

Long, P. and Wall, T. (2009) Media Studies: Texts, Production, and Context. United Kingdom: Pearson Longman.

Stevenson, N. (1999) The Transformation of the Media: Globalisation, Morality and Ethics. United Kingdom: Longman.

Week 4 – Genre

The theory of genre suggests that products are classified and organised into sets as a guide to the consumer. The term ‘genre’ “is a French word for ‘kind’, ‘category’ or ‘type’” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 72) and it is these categories that allow media products to be sorted.

Genre, however, is not something that is fixed or rigid. Genres are fluid and dynamic and constantly change based on the evolution of the industry and the desires and opinions of the audience. Some genres may disappear, such as ‘spaghetti westerns’, whilst others can be created or merged together, such as ‘rom-coms’. Ultimately, the success or failure of a genre is dictated by the market pull – producers want to generate profit and whilst consumers want more and more products, companies will only continue to produce successful formulas.

The theory is not solely about the content of texts, but also the ways that the texts are created. As well as being a guide to the audience as to whether or not they may like a product, genres contain specific codes and conventions that producers can use, with key components such as characters, plots, themes and sounds often replicated. By producing predictable products for a pre-existing audience, the likelihood of success and profit is increased. This can, however, limit the products on offer, as it may be considered too much of a risk to do something different to the norm.

There can be some criticisms of the use of genres within the media. Whilst categories can be created to group texts together, “Any generic media text is both similar to and different from all others of its type” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 72) which can, therefore, make it difficult to determine accurate groupings. Texts often display elements of various genres and do not necessarily fit into a particular genre. It can also be considered that genres govern audience decisions too strictly and therefore limit the appreciation and intake of varying types of text.

It is important to consider social media as a genre because of the way that it can be defined by codes and conventions. For example, they are very heavily image and text based and can be considered as modern-day diaries in a voyeuristic sense. They are flexible and customisable and can incorporate a range other media forms such as videos and music. There are also conventions such as the 140-character limit on Twitter that dictates the way that individuals speak, as well as the personal nature of it. In essence, “social media facilitate a particular way of being social” (Lomborg, 2011, p. 56) through these codes and conventions. It can also prove important in the evolution of genres – the rise of ‘vlogs’ as a video genre stemmed from YouTube – a new media platform.

It would prove particularly interesting to investigate the ways that perceptions of genres have changed with the rise of social media, by conducting primary research into the most popular genres, as well as the ways that they would be defined, in order to ascertain whether or not the classification of genres has altered.

Bibliography

Lomborg, S. (2011) ‘Social media as communicative genres’, Journal of media and communication research, 27.

Long, P. and Wall, T. (2009) Media Studies: Texts, Production, and Context. United Kingdom: Pearson Longman.

Week 5 – Discourse and Power

Discourses are an abstract and ever-changing concept and are very significant within the analysis of media. They are ideas that underpin everything that an individual does, enabling them to make sense of objects and situations through prior experiences or engagements. Discourses allow media texts to be interpreted and to have meaning.

Critical discourse analysis allows for the study of media texts and the sociocultural practices within the texts, such as the power relations. It also, however allows an individual to consider how and why their personal representations and understanding of media content is created. Rather than merely identifying that there are differing representations, the analysis of discourse allows consumers to identify the influential powers that drive such representations. Media texts can often be consumed passively, but “the influence of the media in reflecting, constructing and expressing culture, politics and social life should not be underestimated” (Smith and Bell, 2007, p. 85).

The philosophical movement of post-structuralism considers the ways that individuals interact with society and language, exploring how one sign can refer to another and how meanings and ideas can constantly change. This is also true of discourse, particularly in a media context, as “every instance of language use makes its own small contribution to reproducing and/or transforming society and culture, including power relations” (Fairclough, Mulderrig and Wodak, 1997, p. 370). Discourse both shapes and is shaped by society and the media.

The media can be responsible for altering knowledge, relations and identities within society, such as the western demonisation of figures such as Osama bin Laden. By expressing the particular viewpoint, the media has the power to embed that perspective into the minds of society and thus to influence the way that they perceive or interpret both Osama bin Laden and other associated signs such as ‘al-Qaeda’.

Analysis of discourse considers both the ways that a text is produced and subsequently received, as well as the socio-historical context that underline both production and consumption. Whether it is through financial power, political ideologies or simply personal opinions, both the construction and the intake of media texts is shaped by external factors. Through this, it can be considered that discourse “is constitutive both in the sense that it helps to sustain and reproduce the social status quo, and in the sense that it contributes to transforming it” (Fairclough, Mulderrig and Wodak, 1997, p. 358).

Bibliography

Fairclough, N., Mulderrig, J. and Wodak, R. (1997) ‘Critical Discourse Analysis’, in van Dijk, T. A. Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction (Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introductio). United Kingdom: Sage Publications Ltd.

Smith, P. and Bell, A. (2007) ‘Unravelling the Web of Discourse Analysis’, in Devereux, E. Media Studies: Key Issues and Debates. 1st edn. United Kingdom: Sage Publications Ltd.

Week 7 – Audiences: Conceptualising the Audience

When a media producer creates a media text, they must always consider their target audience and the way that they will respond to the text. It is impossible to identify exactly who will consume a product and thus, producers conceptualise who their audience may be. The way that audiences are conceptualised can be very stereotypical – male audiences will like action films whilst female audiences will prefer romantic comedies, for example.

By definition, an audience is a group of individuals who are temporarily defined by an experience or event, such as their concurrent consumption of a media text. Misconceptions of audiences can suggest that they must be in the same place, but audiences do not have to be united by physical space but the action of consuming the text and “the literalness and quality of being ‘in the act’ of consuming media products” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 276).

Ultimately, the audience is vital to the existence of the media; organisations produce texts for profit and without an audience, there would be no profit. As the media has become more financially driven, mass media has become more competitive in order to attract more audiences on different platforms as audiences are becoming more fragmented. Sales of newspapers and CDs may be in decline, but the audience continues to consume the content online on phones, tablets and computers.

The emergence and integration of new media into everyday life has allowed audiences to become more involved in texts because “life in contemporary societies increasingly revolves around the media” (Alasuutari, 1999, p.17). They are given opportunities to interact and become active audience members, rather than passive. Sceptics may believe that this is not the case, suggesting that the media can brainwash audiences and pretend to empower them whilst simply continuing to broadcast their own ideals.

Propaganda, “the intentional, conscious and active process of managing information and ideas to achieve effects of a political or social nature” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 286), was particularly prevalent during wartime, but evidence of such can be seen in modern media too. By conceptualising their audience, media producers are able to tailor their message to suit the individual beliefs of their audience.

It is too easy to consider audiences as a mass group, but “audiences are more than a ‘concept’ and media institutions therefore depend upon the actual individuals who make up their audience” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 281). It could prove interesting to investigate how media producers cater for the individuals who do not fall into their target audience but may still consume the product – Twitter, for example, may be aimed at a younger audience, but there may be elements in the platform that accommodate more elderly users too.

Bibliography

Alasuutari, P. (1999) Rethinking the Media Audience: The New Agenda. United Kingdom: SAGE Publications Ltd.

Long, P. and Wall, T. (2009) Media Studies: Texts, Production, and Context. United Kingdom: Pearson Longman.

Week 8 – Audiences and Consumption

It is all too common within society to focus upon what the media does to audiences, with issues such as the effects of violent video games often appearing. However, it is important to also consider what audiences do with the media. It can often be the basis of cultural studies and has seen a shift academic interest from the 1950s.

Katz and Blumler developed the concept of active audiences with the uses and gratifications theory that suggests “audiences approach texts out of a purposeful desire to satisfy or ‘gratify’ necessary personal and social needs” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 305).

Divided into four sub-groups, the theory suggests that audiences use media for surveillance and to satisfy their quest for knowledge and as a diversion, or a method of escapism from society. Furthermore, individuals may use the media to define themselves or to stimulate personal relationships, through common interests and characteristics seen in media texts that they may recognise within themselves.

Hall’s encoding and decoding theory also stemmed from the active audience idea. This suggests that producers encode preferred meanings within texts but the meaning also has to be decoded by the consumer. Their personal experiences and ideologies can alter this interpretation, as “decisions flow from our beliefs and desires” (Seaman, 1992, p. 307) and thus, the meaning of a text may change for different consumers.

Despite a perception that media and popular culture is industrialised and dictated by the media, audiences influence popular culture – the media is created by the people and for the people and exists throughout our society and in everyday life. The producers of media texts are audiences to other texts and thus influence their own texts by what they consume.

The way that audiences interact with texts can vary based on a number of external factors. Often, their actions can be limited based upon what is available to them. The work of CassetteBoy is a prime example – he uses clips from speeches and television programmes to portray an alternative message to that intended by the media producers. The beliefs and experiences of subcultures and fandoms can also affect how they respond to what is presented to them – hipsters, for example, are often considered to reject the dominant ideologies in society.

It is important to investigate the ways that people utilise media texts and “we need to explore how people actually consume media and media meanings for the simple fact that they play such an integral role in our lives” (Long and Wall, 2009, p. 339). Studies in this area could be conducted by comparing the ways that different texts are consumed and used, such as the differences between audience reaction to a glamour photo set in comparison to war photography.

Bibliography

Long, P. and Wall, T. (2009) Media Studies: Texts, Production, and Context. United Kingdom: Pearson Longman.

Seaman, W. R. (1992) ‘Active audience theory: pointless populism’, Media, Culture & Society, 14(2).